Ep. 31 - Crafting an Unforgettable Presence - The Christopher Langan Story - Dirty Chai with Chio

In this episode of the Dirty Shite podcast, the host Jill discusses the concept of genius and its relationship to success. She shares the story of Christopher Langen, a genius with an extremely high IQ who appeared on a TV show called One Versus 100. Despite his intelligence, Jill explains that high IQ does not guarantee success and that other factors play a significant role. She references the work of psychologist Lewis Terman and his study of gifted individuals, highlighting that intelligence alone is not the sole determinant of achievement. Jill concludes by discussing how factors such as mindset and emotional regulation are crucial for holistic success. Hello, hi, welcome to this week's installment of the Dirty Shite podcast with me, your host Jill, the podcast where we focus on holistic professional and personal success by growing and developing the common denominator to all your successes, all your failures, and everything in between, you. It's about the mindset, emotional regulation, and the intentional personal development that underpins holistic success. Today, to my surprise, we are continuing with the Crafting an Unforgettable Presence series. I thought it would take me a while to find a story that I would want to tell so soon after the Walter Kreisler story, but I was wrong. I am going to tell you today about Christopher Langen. I came across Christopher Langen in Malcolm Gladwell's Outliers. There are two chapters, chapters three and four, that are dedicated to discussing genius, to considering whether geniuses are automatically better placed to succeed than people who are not as intelligent as they are. It is a fascinating story that brought me to tears the first time that I heard it, and it also brought me to tears preparing for this particular podcast. That thought of emotionality might interfere with my ability to tell the story, but I hope not. Anyway, so let's dive right in. Who's Christopher Langen? The chances are you have never heard of him. Christopher Langen rose to mainstream fame in the United States when he appeared in a TV show called One Versus 100. It was an offshoot of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? And on that show, one person competes against a group of 100 people, referred to as a mob, in answering questions. And if you can answer the questions better than the group of 100, you stand a chance to win a million dollars. It works like deal or no deal, so you keep going and you keep going. So Christopher Langen came on. He was the public face of genius at the time, having been discovered, I put that in quotes, and it was found that he had an IQ that was 45 points higher than Einstein. When his IQ was tested by 2020, it was off the charts. They literally couldn't measure it. He started speaking at six months. At the age of three, he had taught himself to read. At five, he was questioning his grandfather about God and remembered being very disappointed by the results. He would pass foreign language tests after looking at a textbook for a few minutes before the test started. He didn't attend classes. As a teenager and a farmhand, he made his way through Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead's famously abstruse masterpiece, Principia Mathematica. He got a perfect score on his SAT, even though he fell asleep at some point during the test. He would do a semester's math in an hour and he would pass the test. He would do a semester's Russian in an hour and pass. He could draw with such precision, his drawings looked like a photograph. And when he listened to guitarists play, he could imitate their movements so perfectly that he sounded like a trained musician. When he came on the show and he spoke, his sentences were described as marching out one after the other, polished and crisp, like soldiers on a parade ground. And it was very interesting that he did not use conversational mitigation. He knew exactly what he was going to say. And he cashed out at 250,000 without missing a single question. And cashing out at 250,000 was actually an intellectual decision. Having assessed the risks and having decided that this was too much, the risk beyond that point was too high, he simply cashed out. As one would think at this point, this is how geniuses roll, right? Cashing out at 250,000 was not that good. Let's talk briefly about Lewis Terman. And Lewis Terman is going to give us a lot of important material that is going to color the Christopher Lange story. Lewis Terman was a young professor of psychology at Stanford University. And he met a boy named Henry Cowell. As a consequence, he had been unschooled since the age of seven. And he worked as a janitor at a one-room schoolhouse not far from the Stanford campus. He would sneak into the Stanford campus and he would play the piano. And the music he would produce was remarkable. Terman's specialty was intelligence testing. And the Stanford IQ test that millions of people use around the world, the Stanford Binet, was actually created by him. So he decided to test Cowell's IQ because he reasoned that surely this boy must be intelligent if he's able to produce music like this with no training and no ability to read. It turned out that his IQ was above 140, which is very near genius level. Terman was fascinated. How many other diamonds in the rough were floating around out there unknown to the rest of the world? And so he started looking for others. And he found a girl who knew the alphabet of 19 months, another who was reading Dickens and Shakespeare by the time she was four. He found a young man who had been kicked out of law school because his professors did not believe that it was possible for a human being to so precisely reproduce long passages of legal opinion from memory. In 1921, Terman decided to create a formal study of the gifted and make it his life's work. He started funding. And his plan was that he would find the most intelligent people. And based on his belief that IQ was everything, these people would go on to become the best of the best. In fact, he wrote in one of his journals, there is nothing about an individual as important as his IQ, except possibly his morals. And this is all very important because a lot of this, despite that, a spoiler alert, his study was proved quite the opposite. But despite the fact that the study went on to prove the opposite, a lot of the thoughts that he had in the beginning of his study, which ran over many years, which ran over many lives too, was that intelligence was everything. And even though that's been disproven, we have retained the dregs or the ideas have stayed on in the social narrative. So anyway, so he decides that he's going to study the gifted. And he sorted through the records of 250,000 students, high school and elementary, identified 1470 children, whose IQ averaged over 140, and ranged as high as 200. This group of geniuses came to be known as the termites. They were the subject of what would become a very famous psychological study in history. For the rest of his life, Terman watched over his charges like a mother hen. He tracked, tested, measured, and I analyzed. Their educational attainments were noted, marriages, illnesses, psychological health, every promotion, job change was recorded. He wrote his recruits letters of recommendation and graduate school applications. He doled out a constant stream of advice and counsel and recorded his findings in volumes called Genetic Studies of Genius. His idea was that people with a very IQ, with a very high IQ, would be the leaders who would advance science, art, government, education, and social welfare generally. As his subjects grew older, so this is now into their early adulthood, Terman in his journals would write with great excitement about how it was nearly impossible to read a newspaper account of any sort of competition or activity in California that the boys and girls would participate in without finding amongst the winners one of his gifted. He was so convinced they would take writing samples, they would compare them to the writings of famous authors, and they would confirm that absolutely these people were destined for, in his words, heroic stature. Today, actually, as I said earlier, many of Terman's ideas remain central to the way we think of success. That's why schools have ideas, have schools for the gifted, elite universities have particular types of intelligence and aptitude tests, all those sorts of things. If a person said to you that they have magical powers and they could raise your IQ by 30 points, you probably would say yes, because, I mean, that would give you an advantage, right? But the truth is, not necessarily. You may be familiar with an often referenced study by Princeton University's Daniel Kahneman and Angus Ditton that found that after $75,000 a year, your happiness plateaus. In other words, money can buy happiness up to about $75,000. I think the money has been revised to about $120,000. But the point is, at a certain point, the amount of difference that money can make to your state of happiness plateaus. Thereafter, you might have the means to buy more stuff, but it doesn't necessarily make a difference to your mental situation. That is the same sort of conclusion that Liam Hudson, a British psychologist, came to as far as IQ. There is a marked difference in performance between a person with an IQ of 70 and a person with an IQ of 130, 170, 200. But he found that there is minimal difference in the ability for a person to succeed between a person with an IQ of 130 and a person with an IQ of 170. So in other words, where you reach a certain level of competence, where you are smart enough, once you reach a level where you are smart enough, other factors begin to make more of a difference than the IQ itself. And that's very important. So the example that he uses is a basketball one, which I thought was quite good. So if you are 5'6", in other words, if you're about my height, what is the realistic chance of playing professional football? Minimal, right? Because my height, I'm short enough for it to make a difference. But what are the chances of success between people with equal talent that are 6' and 6'1"? At that point, the difference is minimal and makes little to no difference. And that's what happens beyond, it's argued, about 120 points. I disagree on exactly which point it is, but it ranges between 120 and 130. If you look at the list of universities where Nobel Peace Prizes have come from, you find that Yale and Harvard are on the university, but so is Gettysburg College, and so is Holy Cross, so is Hunter's College. You find when you look at the colleges that have had Nobel laureates in chemistry, that the City College of New York is on there, along with MIT, along with Hope College, along with Berea College, along with the University of Massachusetts, along with Rice University. While elite schools and elite IQ might give you a hand up in some situations, it's clearly not the defining factor in an outcome that is defined by a successful life. Perhaps I could even say an outcome that is defined as a successful life. So if you think about, so as far as this idea that beyond a certain threshold, the IQ doesn't provide an advantage, think here of 10,000 hours. This is a concept that is discussed many times and it has found consistent, it's been found consistently that hard work beats talent. That's a different way of saying the same thing. A person with enough skill and enough competence who puts in their 10,000 hours is more likely to succeed than a person with an above average talent who moonlights their talent, right? And we're going to circle back to this because we now need to go back to the story of Christopher Langen and finish it. And you will understand why all of this context and all of this research has been necessary in discussing this story. So what's Christopher Langen's story? Chris Langen's mother was from San Francisco. She was estranged from her family. She had four sons, each with a different father. Chris was the eldest. His father disappeared before Chris was born. He was said to have died in Mexico. His mother's second husband was murdered. Her third committed suicide. Her fourth was a failed journalist named Jack Langen. To this day, according to Chris, he has never met someone who was as poor as his family was. He talks about how they only had one set of clothes and he never owned a matching pair of socks. And they had, because they had one set of clothes, they would have to wash them and stand around naked while they waited for the clothes to dry. That's how poor they were. Langen was wildly abusive and he would lock the cabinets so that the kids couldn't get in. He used a bullwhip to keep the boys in line. He would get jobs and lose them, moving the family on to the next town. One sum of the family lived in an Indian reservation. Another they lived in Virginia City, Nevada. Another they were, they, at another time they lived in Bozeman, Montana. And he lived, they lived in Bozeman, Montana for a long time. And one of Chris' brothers spent some time in a foster home, another was sent to reform school. A lot of Chris' childhood was difficult. It was extremely painful. Jeff, it's Chris' brother, talks about how he never felt that anyone truly understood just how smart Chris was. And because of the way his family were treated and were considered just a bunch of deadbeats and he was severely bullied alongside his brothers, they started, he and his brothers started lifting weights, they learned to fight. When Chris was 14, Jack Langan tried to beat him up yet again, but this time Chris knocked him out cold. And Jack just walked out and never returned. So by the time, what this picture is, the picture that this is painting is by the time Chris is turning 16, 17, by the time he's graduating from high school, he's learned to fight, he's learned to hide his intelligence, he's learned to stick up for himself, and he's learned that there's no one out there looking out for him. That's what it looks like, right? Chris gets two full scholarships on graduating from high school, one for Reed College in Oregon, and the other for the University of Chicago. He chose Reed. He describes it as a huge mistake. And for a portion of this story, I'm going to talk from Chris' perspective. And then I'm going to switch to the researcher's perspective. And that switch is very important. So for now, I'm describing this experience as seen through Chris' eyes. It was a huge mistake going to Reed College, he recalls, because it was a culture shock for him. So he was a kid who had been working as a ranch hand in Montana. And he found himself amongst long-haired city kids, most of them from New York, who had a whole different style. He couldn't get a word in in class, they were very inquisitive, asking questions all the time. They were scrammed into a dorm room, they smoked weed, they brought girls. He didn't know what to do, he would hide in the library. And then he lost his scholarship, because his mother didn't fill out a parent's financial statement form to renew his scholarship. When she didn't fill out that form, and the university informed him, he said he went to try and speak to someone. And they told him, but we've already allocated all the scholarship money, so it's gone, right? And he says, this is his description, that was the style of the place. They simply didn't care. They didn't give a shit about their students, there was no counseling, no mentoring, nothing. He left Reed before writing his final set of exams. So even though he was in a year that was already paid for, and this is important, and he had not renewed his scholarship for the next year, because his mom hadn't filled the form, he left before writing the exam. So as a consequence, his transcript had Fs. And then he went back home, and he tried enrolling in Montana State University, and he was taking math and philosophy classes. Then his car broke down, the car that he had bought for himself broke down. Turns out his brothers had been using it while he was away. And his classes were at 7.30 and 8.30, and there was no other transport for him to use. But if his classes were in the afternoon, he could make it if he hitchhiked. He went and he spoke to the university. They looked at his transcript, and they said, sir, at some point, you're going to need to take yourself seriously, because no one's going to be making special concessions for you when you don't even try. The experiences that he had at Reed in Montana were a turning point in his life, right? He had dreamt of being an academic, but at this point, he just threw in the towel. It was just all too difficult. And he said at this point, he just thought, bananas, that's it. I can do without this higher education system. I am here knocking myself out to make money to make my way back to school. It's in the middle of Montana winter. I'm willing to hitchhike into town every day, do what I need to do just to get into school, and they're not willing to help me. And his brothers were puzzled. They thought that once he made it into university, because he was so smart, he was just going to do so well. But without a degree, Langan floundered. He worked in construction. He took factory jobs, minor civil service jobs. He generally struggled. He wrote a paper. He wrote a sprawling treatise, it's described as, called CTMU, Cognitive Theoretic Model of the Universe. But without academic credentials, he despairs that it will ever get published. So he has not submitted it to anyone for publishing. He describes himself in this situation, in this particular context of CTMU, as, I'm a guy who has half a year, a year and a half of college. At some point, this will come to the attention of the editor. He's going to take the paper and send it off to the referees. Those referees are going to try and look me up, and they're not going to find me. And they're going to say, this guy has a year and a half of college. How can he know what he's talking about? It's such a heartbreaking story. And I cried at this point, because I was just like, oh, my God, oh, my God. How much more does a person need to go through in order to succeed? When he's asked, Christopher Langan, when he's asked, hypothetically, if Harvard offered you a job now, would you take it? He seems conflicted. And he says, obviously, as a full professor, I would count, my thoughts would have weight, I would have my position, my affiliation at Harvard, I would be able to promote my ideas. An institution like that is a great source of intellectual energy. I would be able to absorb the vibration in the air. And it's clear that he's excited by the thought. And then he goes, on the other hand, Harvard is basically a glorified corporation operating with a profit incentive, and that's what makes it tick. It has an endowment in the billions of dollars, the people running it are not searching for truth and knowledge. They just want big shots, and they'll accept a paycheck from these people. It's going to come down to what you want to do, and what you feel right versus what the man says that you need to do in order to receive that paycheck. It's a very despondent view. There is another story I need to tell you before I bring it all together. One last story. And that story is about Robert Oppenheimer. Robert Oppenheimer was also a super intelligent man. You might know him as the person who ran the Manhattan Project. But what you may not know about Robert Oppenheimer is, well, he was raised in a well-to-do family, and he was sent to Harvard and then to Cambridge to pursue his doctorate in physics. Robert was very much like Chris as far as intelligence was concerned. His parents considered him a genius, both his parents, and he was sent to schools that could support that. He then went to Cambridge for his doctorate, like I said, and he had always struggled with depression, but it became really dark at that point. His tutor was a person called Patrick Blackett. And Patrick actually went on to win a Nobel Prize in 1948. And Patrick was forcing him to attend to the minutiae of experimental physics, which he needed to do in order to graduate. But as he grew more and more emotionally unstable, Oppenheimer did something very drastic. He took some chemicals from the lab and he tried to poison his tutor, wild, right? And yet, when Blackett found out and reported him to the school, the report says, after protracted negotiations, it was agreed that Robert would be put on probation and have regular sessions with a prominent Harley Street psychiatrist in London. Imagine that. You try to kill your tutor and you get probation. How does that even make sense? When Oppenheimer heard about, so he eventually gets his qualifications, etc., then he hears about the Manhattan Project, and he was not qualified by a long shot. Nobody thought he would be the one to run the Manhattan Project, of course. And I say he was not qualified, I mean, compared to the other people who were on the roster. Intelligence-wise, we've already established that his IQ was very high. But other than the fact that he had tried to kill his tutor, he was young, 38, junior to most of the people. He was a theorist and the job called for experimenters and engineers. His political affiliations were dodgy. He had all kinds of friends who were communists. And at that time, that mattered a lot. He had never had any administrative experience. And he was described as a very impractical fellow, right? And yet, Oppenheimer understood that Groves guarded the entrance to the Manhattan Project and turned all of his charm and brilliance onto the person in charge of the project. And as someone else would go on to describe it, it was an irresistible performance. And the result was Oppenheimer went from the person struggling with depression who tried to kill his tutor to running the Manhattan Project. How do two people end up in such different places when they have the same IQ? And this is where it all comes together. According to Malcolm Gladwell and the various researchers that he quotes, it is a question of practical intelligence. To have a talent, to have high IQ, to have a particular skill, hard skill, is never sufficient to take you to the finish line. Beyond a certain level of competence, it is your ability to wield that competence, to wield your presence, to be a presence that defines whether you can be a huge success or not. You will be shocked to learn that a lot of the termites from the earlier research study did not go on to win any Nobel Prizes. They did not go on to be famous leaders of industry or of America. They just went on to lead average successful lives. They did well. Some were judges, some were doctors, some even held civil office, but they were all decidedly normal successes despite having the highest IQ ever. So much to the disappointment of the researcher, it turns out IQ is not the single determining factor in success. What is key is understanding the situation that you are in and understanding who to talk to and when and understanding where to apply the energy you have for the purpose of achieving an outcome. What was clear from Christopher Lange's story was, A, he had been through a lot and he was traumatized and he did not have any mental support, one. He had learned to keep his intelligence a secret. He had learned to hide it so that he could survive. He was not very good at interacting with other students. He never spoke and there's a very telling description of an interaction he has with a calculus professor at Reed. So actually he was at Montana State by that time. Why is it that universities that are designed to support people who are super smart were not able to support him? What's wrong? Right? And when you listen in detail to the stories that he tells of his interactions with the people that he was asking for help from, there are a few things that he actually did not communicate. So we know the entire story, but he didn't tell the entire story to the people who he was asking for help. So at Montana State, for example, he says, Can you change my classes? I would like to come to class in the afternoon. He does not explain why he has F on his transcript from Reed University. In fact, what nearly brought me to tears or did a few times was when I was reading about him leaving before he wrote the test because he left in frustration, I remembered my own situation. So I've told you before that I grew up with a single mom. There were times in our lives when things were more difficult than others. There was a time in our life where my mom was struggling to pay my school fees and she hadn't paid my school fees for a particular year in high school. She hadn't paid yet. And we were approaching exams, final exams, actually. And every day I would be, in quotes, expelled. They never they didn't actually formally expel me, but they would tell me I had to leave the school. I was in boarding school. There was nowhere for me to go. They would tell me I needed to leave because I couldn't write my exams because my school fees had been paid. And I would talk to my mom on the phone and she would tell me, I'm working on it. I'm making a plan. Oh, my voice is breaking. I better gather myself. But anyway, she'll tell me I'm working on it. I'm working on it. Just give me a few days. So every day I would get chased out of the school. I would go find somewhere to sit. I would wait and then I'll go back to the school. And the reason I never got on the bus to go back home was first because I knew there wouldn't be any money for me to come back. Number one. But number two, I understood that I could fight for the results after. And the reason I never got on the bus to go back home was first because I knew there wouldn't be any money for me to come back. Number one. But number two, I understood that I could fight for the results after. But I couldn't fight for another opportunity to write. There was only one opportunity to write the exam. And then thereafter, I would have months and months and months to fight to get my results or to make for mommy to make money to buy me, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, to,