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The Enlightenment in the 18th century brought about a shift towards secularity, reason, and experimentation. Thinkers like David Hume argued for knowledge based on direct observation, while Immanuel Kant believed in combining sensory experience with reason. Montesquieu analyzed different European governments and preferred England's approach. Adam Smith believed in the free market and specialization of labor. Voltaire valued intellectualism and criticized religion. Rousseau believed civilization corrupted mankind. Religion was questioned, with some philosophers arguing against Christianity. Enlightened rulers like Frederick II, Joseph II, and Catherine II attempted reforms but faced opposition. Despite some shortcomings, the Enlightenment led to the rise of liberalism and socialism, as well as changes in societal structures and the emergence of the middle class. The 18th century was considered the Enlightenment, a term coined by Immanuel Kant. According to Kant, Europe was entering an era of secularity, reason, objectivity, and experimentation. These enlightened thinkers' ideas challenged orderly systems, and their principles influenced thought during this time. For example, David Hume, a leader of the Scottish Enlightenment, argued that real knowledge can only be collected through direct observation and experience of the senses. In other words, that one must rely on their own experiences rather than attain knowledge through others. However, human morality and ethics arises from, as opposed to something we learn through reasoning or objective experience. As previously mentioned, Immanuel Kant, a Prussian philosopher, combined ideas of empiricism, or the idea that knowledge is obtained through sensory experience, and rationalism, or the idea that one should make decisions based on reason and information into his philosophical systems, even if people shouldn't be from seeking knowledge. He disagreed with Hume's idea of human morality, and thought that it, too, should be based on objectivity and reason. Montesquieu, a Protestant French thinker, analyzed the development of various European governments, and through reason, logic, and observation, observed an observable pattern between the different countries and their systems of government. He preferred England's approach. The English government realized that a monarch is really only a man, and therefore needs to have checks and balances to limit his power and powers of the different branches of the government. He concluded that large countries, such as Russia, lean towards despotism, and medium countries towards kings, and small towards republics. Next, Adam Smith and other enlightened economists felt that mercantilism went against the traditional and natural growth of the economy. Smith believed labor was the highest source of value, and that the invisible hand guided supply and demand, and that when something was in high demand, in this way the free market was formed. He also believed countries better suited to produce certain goods should produce those goods. And additionally, Smith believed that higher specialization of labor meant it would create a more efficient economy. Smith focused on helping those who were not the... gaining surplus wealth that would ultimately benefit the needy in the form of public work such as hospitals and charities. Voltaire, a French philosopher, valued intellectualism and disliked religion in general, believing that it took away from individual intellectualism. He also advocated for deism, for a rational belief in God, and also, similarly to Montesquieu, praised England's government for their toleration. He thought... and helped popularize Newton's laws. Further, these scientific advancements often upset the church, and in doing so, the government. In this way, he was... on new ideas that furthered the scientific advancement of society. Voltaire also went pressure for two years, spending time in the court of King Frederick II, who was also an enlightened ruler, which shared his views. Into the 1760s, the radical phase of the Enlightenment began. Rousseau originated from a low place in society, which made him different from other enlightened thinkers. He was considered a more radical enlightened thinker. He felt that civilization ruined the spirit of mankind, and believed the ideal life could be that of the noble savage. He believed that materialism clashes in social structures, and only led to division and corruption. The role of religion in society was continually questioned during this time period. Philosophes such as Baron d'Aubrac believed that Christianity only slowed down the development of society. He took a viewpoint that at the time... But all things are made from moving particles, as we know today are atoms, and that therefore, there are no god or divine bodies that exist. This faced a lot of backlash, even from other enlightened thinkers such as Voltaire. Another French philosopher was Marquis de Condorcet, who came from an aristocratic family, surprisingly, and although his heritage was He preached very highly for equality for women as well as a constitutional government and justice, and although he had very progressive views on equality, when he was arrested for his aristocratic heritage during the French Revolution. Even though the ideas of the Enlightenment were often for power to the people and somewhat against Even though the ideas of the Enlightenment were often for power to the people and somewhat against institutions like monarchies, there were rulers who combined enlightened thought into their policies and rulings of their country. Frederick II of Prussia, who was visited by Voltaire, was such a ruler. He practiced religious tolerance and believed himself to be the servant of the state, and although he tried his best to make reforms and promote social mobility, he did not increase social mobility or equality, but rather only ended up decreasing chances of social mobility and actually worsening serfdom throughout his nation. Another enlightened ruler, Joseph II of Austria, attempted to make substantial reforms also. He abolished serfdom, reduced censorship, and put forth equality under the law. Although he made many policies meant to further equality and the rights of the people, many of these policies got reversed when it was his death. So it really was an act similarly to Frederick II of Prussia. The major downfall of Joseph II of Austria was that he put forth his policies with only the peasants in mind and was not able to predict that the Junker nobility and the clergy would not be very happy with his decisions, and as a result, many of his policies upon his death had been reversed. Yet another enlightened ruler was Catherine II of Russia. She, although considered an enlightened ruler, often sacrificed her loyalty to enlightened thought by using more practical policies. Because of this, she is also considered a politique, and despite improving equality for some and promoting education and less capital punishment, she did not keep many of her promises such as a constitution for the people of Russia, and was also known for and having affairs with political allies and government officials. As you can see, there is a clear pattern among enlightened rulers of biting off more than they could chew. The aristocracy had an attitude of and this attitude made it difficult for rulers to be able to accomplish much because they faced opposition from those in power. However, as time would go on, things would change, and enlightened thought eventually led to the creation and development of liberalism and socialism, which were two very powerful movements and political parties that were later used by the working class and the bourgeoisie to revolt against these upper classes and start new political systems. It also led to major changes despite some of its shortcomings. For example, the Quakers were the first abolitionist group in Europe that were created in 1783 as a result of enlightenment. Additionally, run boroughs, which were rural places that were represented well, while urban places that were not, because it makes more sense that an urban place will have more representatives as it has more people in it, they were unfortunately not. And this came under scrutiny and was heavily criticized and eventually brought about change. People were very angry because under the old system that had ruled over Europe for a very long time, it went the same old way. Enlightened thought didn't directly bring about change. It did change the Europeans' old mindset of trusting those in power, whether it be the state or the church. This was an important development as it allowed the people to congregate and fight for their beliefs, as well as advocate and demand for a better way of life. Instead of being stuck in old systems to serve them and being forced to be sharecroppers or labor for barely any profit and for someone who didn't care about them. Now there was a glimpse of hope of an idea of a world where there was some sort of social mobility and there wasn't just the aristocracy and everyone below them. There was the emergence soon after in the next century of the middle class, which would permanently change Europe's society, social structure, and economy for the better and all as a result of enlightenment and its thinkers.